An Example of Court Patronage to Honor a Religious Master

David Jackson and Christian Luczanits
Close view of densely figurated mandala in predominantly red, blue, and green tones

Forty-Three-Deity Mandala of Manjuvajra, the twenty-second painting of the Vajravali set commissioned in memory of Lama Dampa, detail showing the painting only; central Tibet; 1375–1380; distemper on cloth; 33 × 29 1/8 in. (83.9 × 74 cm); The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Rogers Fund, 1977; 1977.340; CC0 – Creative Commons (CC0 1.0)

Mandala of Manjuvajra of the Vajravali Set Commissioned in Memory of Lama Dampa

Lhokha, Central Tibet 1375–1380

Forty-Three-Deity Mandala of Manjuvajra, the twenty-second painting of the Vajravali set commissioned in memory of Lama Dampa, detail showing the painting only; central Tibet; 1375–1380; distemper on cloth; 33 × 29 1/8 in. (83.9 × 74 cm); The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Rogers Fund, 1977; 1977.340; CC0 – Creative Commons (CC0 1.0)

Summary

Most Tibetan religious images were constructed according to precise iconographic instructions found in Indian texts. Historian David Jackson and art historian Christian Luczanits investigate one fourteenth-century mandala in the Nepalese-inspired Beri artistic style, tracing the textual sources for both the deities and the patrons. One of a set of paintings drawn from the eleventh- to twelfth-century ritual manual Vajravali, the images were probably commissioned to commemorate the Sakya monk Lama Dampa.

Key Terms

Beri style

Beri is a style of Tibetan painting based on Newar painting of the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. With the destruction of many Indian monasteries in the thirteenth century, Nepal became an increasingly important source for Buddhist teachers and artisan.

donor

In Buddhist context, donor is a person who contributes to or commissions a religious work of art. This act is intended to increase merit on behalf of the benefactor and is dedicated to the benefit of all. It is also usually done for a specific purpose, such as longevity, prosperity, or well-being; to advance religious practice; or to ensure a good rebirth of a deceased relative, teacher, or friend. A similar practice is also known in Hinduism and Bon.

iconography

In the Himalayan context, iconography refers to the forms found in religious images, especially the attributes of deities: body color, number of arms and legs, hand gestures, poses, implements, and retinue. Often these attributes are specified in ritual texts (sadhanas), which artists are expected to follow faithfully.

Manjushri

Manjushri is one of the most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Considered the embodiment of wisdom, Manjushri is often recognized by his attributes: a sword which cuts through ignorance and a book, the Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutra. Emanations of Manjushri can also be recognized by these same attributes. Another important Chinese iconographic tradition depicts a youthful Manjushri riding on a lion. This form is associated with Manjushri’s abode on earth, Mount Wutai in China, one of the few Buddhist sites in China visited by Tibetan and Mongol pilgrims among others from all over Asia. Manjushri was seen as the protector deity of China, and the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty who claimed to be emanations of Manjushri emphasized/promoted this association.

Sakya

Sakya is the name of a monastery and of a major tradition of Tibetan Buddhism that originated there during the Later Diffusion of Buddhism. Sakya Monastery was the seat of power during Sakya-Mongol rule in Tibet (1260–1350s), founded on the priest-patron relationship. Notable Sakya figures include Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), who played an instrumental role in establishing Tibetan relations with the Mongols; Drogon Chogyel Pakpa (1234-1280), who served as Qubilai Khan’s imperial preceptor and invented the Pakpa Script; and Buton (1290–1364), who compiled the Tibetan Canon. The Sakya are particularly known for their Lamdre teachings. In the 1350s, Pakmodru replaced the Sakya political prominence.

Vajravali

The Vajravali is a collection of esoteric teachings on mandala construction written by the Indian monk Abhayakaragupta (eleventh to twelfth centuries). The Vajravali was the first attempt to systematize and provide iconographic guides for the mandalas used in various Vajrayana tantras, which were widely transmitted in Tibet.

This exquisite Tibetan scroll painting () (figs. 1 and 2) depicts the three-headed and six-armed tantric Manjuvajra embracing his consort in the center of his forty-three-deity . This painting once was part of a set depicting the mandalas of the in the Nepalese-inspired . The paintings of this set are further remarkable for their informative captions, identifying most of their figures as well as their subject matter. Nevertheless, to establish the precise historical context of the creation of the set and its later usage based on the fragments that are now spread across Western museums and private collections remains challenging.

Mandalas of the Vajravali

The term Vajravali refers to the first and main part of a trilogy compiled by the late eleventh- to early twelfth-century Indian scholar Abhayakaragupta, the other parts being the Nishpannayogavali and the Jyotirmanjari. Whereas the Vajravali describes the rituals associated with twenty-six mandalas, such as their making, , and initiation, the other two texts complement it by describing the of their deities and the associated fire rituals. The Vajravali was an attempt to bring order to the diversity of ritual procedures alluded to in esoteric Buddhist literature, and the comparative point of view used in discussing the mandalas may well have provided a model for Tibetan scholars of later periods. Today the Nishpannayogavali, which contains the iconographic details of the mandala deities, ranks among the most important primary sources on Indian Buddhist transmitted to Tibet.

While the Vajravali focuses on twenty-six mandalas, passing remarks about different opinions and variants in texts describing them leave considerable scope for interpretation. Consequently, Tibetan interpretations of the Vajravali may contain considerably more mandalas. In Tibet, these interpretations were handed down in distinct transmission lineages, and the painting set focused on here is an early witness of one such interpretation. 

Forty-Three-Deity Mandala of Manjuvajra

This mandala of Manjuvajra, a form of , the of wisdom, derives from the Mayajala Tantra, as the caption on the painting also confirms: “The twenty-second Mandala; the forty-three-deity Manjushri Mayajala mandala.” The mandala is the twentieth described in detail in the text, and its iconography matches the Nishpannayogavali perfectly. It shows the five buddhas embracing their consorts, with the central figure of Manjuvajra taking the place of . Four goddesses complete the central circle, and eight more goddesses inhabit the second palace. The Sixteen Bodhisattvas of the Fortunate Aeon occupy the outer palace, along with the ten deities and their consorts. The latter protect the ten directions; those protecting the zenith and nadir explain the double occupancy in the western (top) and eastern (bottom) gates. 

The paintings of this Vajravali set (figs. 3 and 4) are easy to recognize; all have the same composition dominated by a mandala taking up the full width of the canvas. Furthermore, the same teacher is represented in the top center. In this painting, that teacher has been shifted to the left of center, as his position is taken by a golden finial. Close observation reveals that a fine white line, deriving from this finial and accompanied by a flower garland, is drawn along the outermost fire ring of the mandala, which then merges with a multilayered base represented in the bottom corners of the central panel behind the deities. Thus, in this case, the mandala is coequal with a that is drawn directly behind it and encompasses the entire mandala. Indeed, the Nishpannayogavali mentions that the palace of this mandala is to be drawn within a white stupa. 

Profusely decorated, brightly colored mandala featuring portraits in roundels and in arches at top and bottom
Fig. 3

Thirteen-Deity Mandala of Jnanadakini, the fourth painting of the Vajravali set commissioned in memory of Lama Dampa; central Tibet, Sakya tradition; 1375–1380; distemper on cloth; 29 1/2 × 33 in. (74.9 × 83.8 cm), with traditional textile mount: 54 1/8 × 36 1/4 in. (137.5 × 92.1 cm); The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Purchase, Lita Annenberg Hazen Charitable Trust Gift, 1987; 1987.16; CC0 – Creative Commons (CC0 1.0)

Mandala in jewel tones featuring richly ornamented green field between inner square and outer circles
Fig. 4

Thirty-Two-Deity Mandala of Aksobhyavajra, the second painting of the Vajravali set commissioned in memory of Lama Dampa; central Tibet, Sakya tradition; 1375–1380; distemper on cloth; Pritzker Collection

Each corner of the mandala is filled by five medallions; the smaller ones continue the teaching transmission lineage of this particular mandala in the top row, while the larger ones depict different forms of the bodhisattvas Manjushri and . Finally, the bottom row contains four protective deities and seven goddesses personifying offerings, along with a portrayal of the receiver and practitioner of the depicted teaching, who is possibly also the donor, in the bottom right corner.

Historical Context of the Set

A characteristic of this set of mandala paintings is that many historical figures and deities are identified by tiny captions. Nevertheless, to precisely establish the historical context is challenging, and different opinions were offered in the past. On this painting, the main teacher to the left of the stupa’s top is vaguely referred to as “His excellency, the Lord of Dharma,” and the likely of the painting in the bottom right corner has no caption at all. 

Fortunately, the second painting of the set, depicting the thirty-two-deity mandala of Akshobhyavajra from the  (fig. 4), is more informative in this regard. There, the inscription for the main teacher reads, “Dharma Lord Sonam Gyeltsen” (fig. 5); and the bottom right figure is identified as “The donor Dzongji Chenpo” (fig. 6). Clearly, since these figures repeat on each painting, their names have not been repeated on all paintings of the set. After all, in their original context all paintings would have been viewed together.

Close view of top hemisphere of mandala featuring architectural structure amid ornately decorated middle field
Fig. 5 Detail of Thirty-Two-Deity Mandala of Aksobhyavajra, top center; central Tibet; Pritzker Collection
Close view of blue-skinned deities and seated figures in interlocking roundels against blue background with floral motif
Fig. 6 Detail of Thirty-Two-Deity Mandala of Aksobhyavajra, top center; central Tibet; Pritzker Collection

Accordingly, the top central teacher can be identified as Lama Dampa Sonam Gyeltsen (1312–1375), an idealist born in the Khon family who left the leadership of the great seat of Sakya and its political entanglements so that he could lead a more genuinely religious life. In the early 1370s, his religious acclaim was so great and widespread that even the rulers of the  court, which succeeded the government of the Sakya tradition, held him in high esteem. It is thus no surprise that the patron of this painting set is Dzongji Gyeltsen Zangpo, a powerful functionary of the Pakmodrupa regime in the 1370s and 1380s, when its rulers were comparably weak.

The most likely scenario is that Dzongji commissioned this painting in memory of Lama Dampa after his passing in 1375. A work of this quality and complexity would take some time to produce, especially considering the many paintings that make up the whole set. And, given his extreme modesty and saintliness, Lama Dampa would not have approved such a big project in his honor while he lived.

The Beri Painting Style

Originating from the heartland of , the art created in northeast India strongly impacted Buddhist art in Tibet, particularly down to the twelfth century. At that time, Tibet was experiencing a second revival of Buddhism, and patrons and artists avidly copied compositions from Pala-ruled northeastern India. However, from the thirteenth century on, following the destruction of the main monasteries in India, Tibetans turned more and more to Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley, home to the exceptionally skilled artists, for aesthetic inspiration and artisanship. Tibetans themselves quickly began to also employ the Beri style, a Newar or “Nepalese style,” first mainly in Tsang region immediately north of the Kathmandu Valley. The Beri then became one of the country’s most influential styles, flourishing from the thirteenth through the sixteenth century.

The Vajravali painting set is an extremely refined example of the Beri style, demonstrating the enduring artistic connections between Tibetan art and the art of the Kathmandu Valley. Hallmarks of this style as they appear in this set are the dominance of vermilion, used in all the nimbuses, the dark blue background filled with blossoms, the intricate lotus scroll backgrounds filling all spaces of the mandala palace, and the lotus column pillars that support lobed arches framing the figures in the upper and lower rows of the painting. In fact, many of the dress, jewelry, and throne motifs employed for the deities themselves can be linked to Newar art. Furthermore, the sumptuous decorative motifs topping and flanking the mandala gates, including representations of monkeys and vases crowned by a scroll forming seven flower medallions, confirm this connection (fig. 7).

Mandala detail featuring highly ornamented architectural structure flanked by fantastical creatures
Fig. 7.

Detail of Forty-Three-Deity Mandala of Manjuvajra showing the mandala gate; central Tibet; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Rogers Fund, 1977; 1977.340; CC0 – Creative Commons (CC0 1.0)

Nevertheless, the set was painted in a Tibetan workshop, as evidenced by color notations—letters used to indicate the color to be filled in—many of which can be seen where the paint layer has been abraded. A workshop production also accounts for the differences between the individual paintings in the set (figs. 2, 3, and 4). This workshop may well have been located in or near , in central Tibet, near the place where Lama Dampa passed away and near the seat of the government in which the donor served.

Usage and Dispersal

Pratapaditya Pal has proposed that the paintings later ended up in Ngor Monastery. There is a scenario that could account for this. Ngorchen, its founder, might have received the set as an official gift from the Pakmodrupa government. When he visited central Tibet in 1441, Ngorchen was regally sponsored by the then ruler, Drakpa Jungne (1414–1445). One of his main projects was to teach the Vajravali and sponsor a complete new set of its paintings.

Such a scenario would also account for a later very limited usage of the set, which would explain its present excellent condition. This set would not have been displayed on the occasions that abbots of Ngor gave the teachings and initiations for the Vajravali set of mandalas, using instead the more recent set commissioned by the later abbot Namkha Pelzang or even the famous Ngorchen-sponsored set (fig. 8). 

Footnotes
1

Gudrun Bühnemann, “Some Remarks on the Date of Abhayākaragupta and the Chronology of His Work,” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 142, no. 1 (1992): 120–27; Masahide Mori, “The Vajrāvalī of Abhayākaragupta. A Critical Study, Sanskrit Edition of Select Chapters and Complete Tibetan Version” (Ph.D. diss., SOAS University of London, 1997); Lokesh Chandra and Nirmala Sharma, Niṣpanna-Yogāvalī: Sanskrit and Tibetan Texts with English Translation (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 2015).

2

Masahide Mori, “The Vajrāvalī Maṇḍala Series in Tibet,” in Esoteric Buddhist Studies: Identity in Diversity. Proceedings of the International Conference on Esoteric Buddhist Studies, Koyasan University, 5 Sept.-8 Sept. 2006, ed. ICEBS Editorial Board (Kōyasan: Kōyasan University, 2008), 223–41.

3

See for example Marie-Thérèse de Mallmann, Introduction à l’iconographie du Tântrisme Bouddhique (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1986), 58–60; Lokesh Chandra and Nirmala Sharma, Niṣpanna-Yogāvalī: Sanskrit and Tibetan Texts with English Translation (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 2015), 164–78.

4

While this is clear in the text (see Lokesh Chandra and Nirmala Sharma, Niṣpanna-Yogāvalī: Sanskrit and Tibetan Texts with English Translation (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 2015), 165), such a detail gets lost in short iconographic summaries, such as those contained in Marie-Thérèse de Mallmann, Introduction à l’iconographie du Tântrisme Bouddhique (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1986), 58–60.

5

See for example Pratapaditya Pal, Tibet: Tradition and Change, exhibition catalog (Albuquerque: Albuquerque Museum, 1997), 47, pl. 73; Amy Heller “Four Mandalas of the Vajrāvalī,” in Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism, ed. Martin Brauen (New York: Rubin Museum of Art, 2009), 99–103; Jean-Luc Estournel, “About the Portraits of Tibetan Masters," Asianart.com, published February 28, 2021, https://www.asianart.com/articles/tibetan_masters/index.html.

6

On this phrase, “drung chos kyi rje pa,” see for example D. David P. Jackson, The Nepalese Legacy in Tibetan Painting: Early Beri to Ngor, Exhibition catalog, Masterworks of Tibetan Painting Series 2 (New York: Rubin Museum of Art, 2010), 134–35, https://issuu.com/rmanyc/docs/nepalese_legacy_96

7

The painting is identified as “dkyil ’khor gnyis pa bsdus pa’i rim par gsungs pa gsang ba ’dus pa lha sum bcu so gnyis kyi dkyil ’khor/.”

8

The relevant captions read, “chos rje bsod nams rgyal mtshan and sbyin pa’i bdag po dzong ji chen po.”

9

David P. Jackson, The Nepalese Legacy in Tibetan Painting: Early Beri to Ngor, Exhibition catalog, Masterworks of Tibetan Painting Series 2 (New York: Rubin Museum of Art, 2010), 132, https://issuu.com/rmanyc/docs/nepalese_legacy_96

10

See the detailed account of Beri characteristics in David P. Jackson, The Nepalese Legacy in Tibetan Painting: Early Beri to Ngor, Exhibition catalog, Masterworks of Tibetan Painting Series 2 (New York: Rubin Museum of Art, 2010), 81–97, https://issuu.com/rmanyc/docs/nepalese_legacy_96

11

For example, on painting two of the set, light green is worn off in many areas, revealing the Tibetan color code ja. In the Manjuvajra painting most color degradations have occurred in the skin tones of the teacher portraits. That color was the least stable after all those years.

12

Here Pal (Pratapaditya Pal, Tibet: Tradition and Change, Exhibition catalog (Albuquerque: Albuquerque Museum, 1997), 147, pl. 73) is following Stoddard.

13

See Jörg Heimbel, Vajradhara in Human Form. The Life and Times of Ngor Chen Kun Dga’ Bzang Po (Lumbini: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2017), 344–47.

Further Reading

Brauen, Martin. 2009. Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism. Exhibition catalog. New York: Rubin Museum of Art.

Estournel, Jean-Luc. 2021. “About the Portraits of Tibetan Masters.” Asianart.com. February 28, 2021. https://www.asianart.com/articles/tibetan_masters/index.html.

Jackson, David P. 2010. The Nepalese Legacy in Tibetan Painting. Masterworks of Tibetan Painting 2. Exhibition catalog. New York: Rubin Museum of Art. https://issuu.com/rmanyc/docs/nepalese_legacy_96.

Citation

David Jackson and Christian Luczanits, “Mandala of Manjuvajra of the Vajravali Set Commissioned in Memory of Lama Dampa: An Example of Court Patronage to Honor a Religious Master,” Project Himalayan Art, Rubin Museum of Art, 2023, http://rubinmuseum.org/projecthimalayanart/essays/mandala-of-manjuvajra-of-the-vajravali-set-commissioned-in-memory-of-lama-dampa.

Beri style

Language:
Tibetan

Beri is a style of Tibetan painting based on Newar painting of the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. With the destruction of many Indian monasteries in the thirteenth century, Nepal became an increasingly important source for Buddhist teachers and artisan.

donor

In Buddhist context, donor is a person who contributes to or commissions a religious work of art. This act is intended to increase merit on behalf of the benefactor and is dedicated to the benefit of all. It is also usually done for a specific purpose, such as longevity, prosperity, or well-being; to advance religious practice; or to ensure a good rebirth of a deceased relative, teacher, or friend. A similar practice is also known in Hinduism and Bon.

iconography

In the Himalayan context, iconography refers to the forms found in religious images, especially the attributes of deities: body color, number of arms and legs, hand gestures, poses, implements, and retinue. Often these attributes are specified in ritual texts (sadhanas), which artists are expected to follow faithfully.

Manjushri

Language:
Sanskrit

Manjushri is one of the most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Considered the embodiment of wisdom, Manjushri is often recognized by his attributes: a sword which cuts through ignorance and a book, the Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutra. Emanations of Manjushri can also be recognized by these same attributes. Another important Chinese iconographic tradition depicts a youthful Manjushri riding on a lion. This form is associated with Manjushri’s abode on earth, Mount Wutai in China, one of the few Buddhist sites in China visited by Tibetan and Mongol pilgrims among others from all over Asia. Manjushri was seen as the protector deity of China, and the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty who claimed to be emanations of Manjushri emphasized/promoted this association.

Sakya

Language:
Tibetan

Sakya is the name of a monastery and of a major tradition of Tibetan Buddhism that originated there during the Later Diffusion of Buddhism. Sakya Monastery was the seat of power during Sakya-Mongol rule in Tibet (1260–1350s), founded on the priest-patron relationship. Notable Sakya figures include Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), who played an instrumental role in establishing Tibetan relations with the Mongols; Drogon Chogyel Pakpa (1234-1280), who served as Qubilai Khan’s imperial preceptor and invented the Pakpa Script; and Buton (1290–1364), who compiled the Tibetan Canon. The Sakya are particularly known for their Lamdre teachings. In the 1350s, Pakmodru replaced the Sakya political prominence.

Vajravali

Language:
Sanskrit

The Vajravali is a collection of esoteric teachings on mandala construction written by the Indian monk Abhayakaragupta (eleventh to twelfth centuries). The Vajravali was the first attempt to systematize and provide iconographic guides for the mandalas used in various Vajrayana tantras, which were widely transmitted in Tibet.